The Song Dynasty :: essays research papers

The Song Dynasty The Song administration kept going more than 300 years, from 960 to 1279. Their history is isolated into two times of Northern and Southern Song. The Song time frame was one of China's generally quiet and prosperous period. Anyway the Song government was degenerate and frail. Â Â Â Â Â The Song Dynasty, or Sung Dynasty was a period in which the Chinese government was feeble. At the outset General Chao K'uang-yin, likewise known as Sung T'ai Tsu, had to become ruler so as to bring together China. Sung T'ai Tsu made a national armed force under his immediate control. He, and just he had control of the military. When he had died his less skilled replacements couldn't monitor the military, the military progressively lost distinction. The debilitating of China's military, corresponded with the ascent of solid traveling countries on the guests. Â Â Â Â Â During a similar time of the military's loss of renown, the common administration rose in nobility. This was an assessment framework that had been reestablished in Sui and T'ang and was additionally explained and regularized. Determination assessments were help at regular intervals at the area, commonplace, and metropolitan levels. Â Â Â Â Â Only 200 out of thousands of candidates were conceded the jinshi degree. This was the furthest extent and delegated on government posts. From this time on, government employees turned into China's most begrudged world class, supplanting the genetic aristocrats also, proprietors. Â Â Â Â Â The Song tradition just reached out over to the pieces of prior Chinese realms. The Khitans controlled the northeastern domains and the His Hsia controlled the northwestern regions. The Song sovereigns couldn't recoup these terrains so they had to make harmony with the Khitans and the Hsi Hsia. They gave monstrous measures of installments to the brutes, under these harmony terms, it exhausted the state treasury and cause overwhelming installments on taxpaying workers. Â Â Â Â Â About 100 years after the Songs previously began administering once again China, their government began to experience a significant decay. Authorities that held significant government positions were degenerate. Affluent shippers that got rich from outside exchange discovered approaches to abstain from covering charges. The workers started to revolt when the substantial charges were put on them. The Song Dynasty had a great deal of issues, in 1069 Emperor Shen Tsung named Wang A shi as boss priest. Wang was a researcher who concentrated before Chinese governments. Wang saw the degenerate government and made immense change in the administration. His changes depended on the content of 'Rituals of Chou'. Wang attempted to get fair, keen authorities by improving the college framework. He made common assessments increasingly down to earth and improved the legitimacy framework to diminish defilement among government authorities.

Increasing the hardware Essay Example for Free

Expanding the equipment Essay Dynamic As any business develops, they are continually hoping to extend all angles ofâ their business. With this development, the expense of expanding the equipment and programming required for the extension is likewise expanding. Numerous organizations are searching for approaches to keep or even smooth out the equipment they presently have yet extend. They need an approach to have their clients sign into their site and go to a focal server however need all the essential records for the clients to be put away somewhere else which will speed up the server. To be effective in today’s showcase, numerous organizations are understanding the need of utilizing innovation. As an ever increasing number of organizations utilize more innovation, their IT foundation can't deal with all the traffic because of the absence of accessible server/extra room expected to satisfy the expanding needs of the clients. Regardless of whether the business is little or a huge enterprise, finding the required accessible server/extra room is turning into a consistently expanding issue. Attempting to take care of this issue, numerous organizations have started to search for an elective answer for store a large number of their business records from their own primary PCs, this is called distributed storage. Consider how you have an outside hard drive that you use to store records from the hard drive of your PC, the distributed storage works similarly. The main exemption is that you don't claim the outer stockpiling, you lease the extra room from somebody who deals with all the upkeep and refreshing of the site. JPCexpress has been working for a long time with their own inner stockpiling abilities and now are in the market to extend their business. The present server space that the organization possesses is being impeded by the measures of information it needs to utilize day by day so they need a more current answer for their capacity issues with the goal that they can keep on offering their creation offices and clients the most ideal help. Following day administration separates this organization from other online organizations and I will demonstrate what should be done to assist then with continueing to achieve this with a basic server space arrangement. Organization Background JPCexpress is a pioneer in the web based printing industry. They utilize trend setting innovation that permits the client to put in a request and have it printed and conveyed the following day. There are numerous web based printing associations, however JPCexpress was one of the main that offered 24 hour conveyance in the event that you submit your request by a specific time the day preceding. Theâ company was established in 2001 that offered printing as a help so the client approaches all the organization printing business arrangements permitting them to submit their requests directly on the organization site. The client doesn't need to put any monies into their own printing foundation and the staff that would be expected to look after it. JPCexpress offers its administrations to a wide range of associations of all sizes that would prefer not to problem with having inner printing capacities. Because of the client having the option to transfer all their data to assist us with playin g out the required administrations, this takes up a great deal of extra room. JPCexpress works three immense distribution centers that are deliberately positioned the nation over. Inside every office, they house all the equipment and programming expected to lead the printing business alongside all the equipment and programming required for the IT side of the business. The clients can utilize our site as their own so they realize they will get precisely the item they need. Our groups of architects are continually presenting new administrations and answers for the clients and they have them incorporate the new advancements into our foundation month to month. The explanation we possess the quickest turnaround energy for web based printing organizations is because of the way that our clients can utilize our webpage as their own to make and request their printing needs. We have become a pioneer in the web based printing world as a result of our client care, simplicity and speed of our online administrations and the way that we promise you will have your request the following day on the off chance that you meet the day by day cut off time. Conversation of Business Problem During times of pinnacle use, the measure of information utilized is overpowering. JPCexpress is a first class printing business however because of our stockpiling abilities, we do have issues that will ease back the support of our clients. This is an issue in light of the fact that the planning of the gradualness (can keep clients from making the cut off time for following day administration) which legitimately identifies with client care and consumer loyalty. The fundamental issue is that when there are numerous clients on the framework, it eases back down and forestalls convenience. I imagine that JPCexpress could profit by rising innovation as distributed computing or could capacity. Expanding our capacity limit would keep the framework from easing back down and loss of information. Any IT office inside any business in every case needs better approaches to expand the capacities of their present foundation without putting resources into new equipment, new permitting requirementsâ or investing the energy and monies to prepare and employ new work force. Because of the expanding measures of information required by our current clients and the expansion of new clients, individuals from our IT office needs to physically go into the framework and dispose of old records and clear any excess information. This happens when our framework turns out to be moderate which eases back the utilization of our creation devices and this all indicates a misfortune in the measure of work that can be performed. On the off chance that the association was to utilize distributed computing, the issue of overpowering the framework could be stayed away from. Distributed computing includes any membership based or pay-per-use administration that, continuously over the Internet, expands its current capacities (Gruman, 2012). Utilization of the cloud could start at our halfway found office for preliminary purposes until we check whether utilizing it is advantageous to both the clients and to our investors. Significant Level Solution For some, organizations, having enough extra room to hold all the data they have procured from their clients and the working of interior strategic approaches is a genuine test that getting progressively harder. Numerous associations have gone to erasing immense measures of information to open up space for the new information they have to remain refreshed and to keep on giving their clients astounding client care. Numerous organizations have gone to distributed storage to help alleviate this issue. Distributed storage goes about as a halfway found server whose principle reason for existing is for capacity as it were. Utilizing distributed storage, every one of the three offices can store and recover documents as they are required without putting resources into more foundation. When choosing to move to distributed storage, a couple of concerns will be raised. A few people imagine that distributed storage is less secure than nearby server farms and this isn't accurate. . At the point wh en the cloud have that IT chief work together the cloud host will encode the information and the business will store the keys to that encryption on it nearby system (Marsh, 2013). Many cloud suppliers offer dashboards to the customer so they can log and deal with the company’s server farm. They can include more stockpiling on the off chance that they need and this is finished without adding any gear to expand capacity. I have checked two of the significant suppliers of distributed storage for estimating and adaptability. Amazon S3 is 99.9 percent solid and it is adaptable to accommodate your present business needs and furthermore can be changed to accommodate your future needs also (Amazon Web Services, 2013). All information going into this distributed storage is scrambled for information security and you can choose what area you need to have your information put away in. Another brilliant advantage is that once the information is gone into the cloud, it is consequently supported up in the event that one framework bombs you will lose your information. All information transferred is for nothing yet they do charge for every GB of information that is mo ved or downloaded from the cloud. This appears to be quite sensible since we will keep up a focal server with just our servers signing into the cloud to recover the client data. Google distributed storage offers secure and safe distributed storage. It has configurable security controls and the cloud is adaptable so you can get what you need now and later on the off chance that you need more stockpiling you can generally include more (Google Cloud Storage, 2013). Looking between the Amazon and Google destinations, the two of them offer similar kinds of highlights yet I was unable to discover any information that says how dependable the Google cloud is. Additionally, checking the valuing from the two destinations, apparently Amazon is somewhat less expensive than Google is. Moving to distributed storage is a reasonable alternative to help fathom dormancy issues and site slack because of the tremendous measures of information being transmitted over our site. Advantages of Solving the Problem Taking care of this difficult utilizing distributed storage will speed up the servers the clients use to direct their business. The sped up the server will likewise take the customers’ arranges rapidly and get them to the ideal printing office to guarantee they make the cut off time for 24 hour conveyance. Executing the distributed storage arrangement at just a single office will permit the business time to check whether the cloud is a reasonable alternative to putting endless monies in overhauling our present offices. Utilizing the cloud will set aside us cash on account of the sped up at which the clients can utilize the framework, the speed in preparing the requests and furthermore set aside us cash since we won't need to employ extra faculty to keep up extra equipment or pay for permitting for extra programming. In an article composed by Joe McKendrick for Forbes magazine, he discusses the advantages of distributed computing for a business. Cost decrease †utilizing cloud as capacity brings down exchange costs, limits the interest in equipment and programming and furthermore diminishes the requirement for an immense IT staff or for adding extra faculty to oversee you IT

4 ways to prepare for a graduate school fair COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

4 ways to prepare for a graduate school fair COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog The travel season kicked off in September, and things have really started to pick up. If youre planning to meet us while were on the road, then these tips from the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA) will be useful. *** Research: Before attending a Graduate School Fair, research the participating schools. Prepare a list of questions that cannot be answered by their website. APSIA.org makes researching the leading international affairs graduate schools easy. At APSIA.org, you will find lists of degree programs, fields of specialization and other details on 60+ member s and affiliate school programs. Reading profiles will help you learn specifics about each program. Prioritize: After your research, prioritize which schools you want to speak with. Create a printed or digital list to focus your time. At the same time keep an open mind. Speak with other schools you might not know about. Schools you have overlooked may specialize in your area of interest or offer better financial aid. Engage: At the fair remember these three easy tips: show direction, convey your interests and express concerns. Showing direction helps counselors recommend specific programs or tracks of study. Sharing your interests helps you determine which schools share those interests. Expressing your concerns helps you understand what schools have to offer and what their expectations are of incoming students. These three easy tips will help you conduct a positive discussion with admissions counselors. After the Fair, follow up and thank the school representative. Find out if you can visit campus to continue the conversation. Apply: After you attend a Graduate School Fair, finalize your list of schools and apply. Before applying, we always recommend listening to our webinar on “Best Practices in Applying to Grad Schools” which highlights: an application timeline, common application mistakes, frequently asked questions, funding options and much more. Visit APSIAs website to find upcoming fairs and presentations.  To see where SIPA will be this travel season, view our Recruitment Calendar.

Islam and Incarnation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1278 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/10/10 Category Religion Essay Tags: Islam Essay Did you like this example? A son came to earth. He had no father, but God protected him. He had few followers, but he prophesied of a Kingdom. He did marvelous acts, but he was merely a man. This Jesus, according to the Koran, was a man of God, but he was not the God-man. This Jesus was not incarnate, not God taking up human flesh to make Himself known to His creation, for Allah must forever remain apart from his creation. Muslims believe they live in a world untouched by the incarnate God-man, and they do so happily because their doctrine so vehemently denies the incarnation. Islam fails because of its denial of the incarnation. Allah’s Character Al-Adl Allah’s justice demands payment that cannot be satisfied without the incarnation. To say that Allah is just is a gross understatement. One of Allah’s 99 names is Al-Adl, the utterly just, and Surah 95:8 leaves no room for argument on the issue. According to the Koran, if Allah was as just as he claims to be, there would be no life left on earth. Because Allah is just, he must exact payment for wrong each person has committed individually, but this is not what Islamic tradition consistently teaches. In one Sahih Bukhari hadith, a collection of Muhammed’s teachings gathered by his family and close friends in the years after his death, there is a story of a man who has committed 99 murders. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Islam and Incarnation" essay for you Create order Knowing that he has done great wrong and was coming to the end of his life, he seeks out a worthy Muslim to see what he must do to have Allah accept him. The murderer tells his story to the worthy Muslim, but the verdict came back that he would not be pardoned. Upon hearing the verdict, he kills the man and seeks out another Muslim in hopes of a different verdict. The man he finds is an even wiser Muslim who tells the murderer that he must go to a specific city and repent immediately. The murderer dies on his way to the city, and two angels, one an angel of mercy and the other of judgment, come to claim his body. A great argument ensues, and eventually a measurement is taken to see if he was nearer the city of repentance or the city he left and is found closer to the wrong city. Allah, being merciful and benevolent, shrinks the earth to make him closer the city of repentance so he could be in paradise. This story is not an example of a cherry-picked Hadith. Muslims commonly use this Hadith to teach the nobility of repentance, but they ignore the fact that Allah broke his character of justice to save the murderer. Justice cannot be satisfied without payment; a consistent God cannot wink away sin. The incarnation solves the problem of justice through Jesus’ death on the cross. Al-Kabir Allah’s greatness diminishes without the incarnation. Allah is Al-Kabir, the great, as listed in the 99 names of Allah as well. One former Muslim went as far as to say that Allah’s greatness is the anchor of Islam. There is an almost universal understanding that love is the motivaton for every great action. Through the pen of Paul, Scripture affirms that love must motivate your actions for them to have worth because Scripture’s standard for love is extremely high. Jesus, whose words are deeply respected by Muslims, calls His followers to love even those who hate them, and He even goes a step farther to tell His followers to pray for them. The Koran does not have such a high view of love as the Bible does. While it does commend a natural type of love where a man cares for those who care about him, the fundamental distinction is that love is only for those who deserve it, not for the unlovable and our enemies. The Koran’s small view of love eliminates the possibility of the incarnation which led to the greatest act of love of all time. â€Å"If God is the Greatest Possible Being, and love is the greatest ethic, where do we find love expressed in the greatest possible way† – the cross. Even if the incarnation did happen, Muslims vehemently deny the historicity of the cross and generally hold to a replacement theory. The replacement theory, that Jesus went all the way to the cross, but at the last moment, Allah took Jesus’ appearance and placed it on another man so that another man was crucified, does not solve the problem of Allah’s greatness. If the replacement theory were true, that would mean Allah personally started one of the largest false religions in the world which is anything but great. Allah’s greatness requires an act of love with as much magnitude as the cross, but the Koran’s denial of the incarnation makes it impossible for Allah to manifest his greatness in the greatest possible way. The Christian’s Responsibility For Christians, it is important not only to point out the deficiencies of Islam regarding the incarnation, but they must lovingly transition to sharing truth for the purpose of evangelism. What set apart Christ’s ministry was that He found people where they were, but He did not leave them there. Christians must do the same and can do so because of the nature of the Gospel. The Gospel exhibits compossibility, the existence of two contradictory things at the same time similar to a paradox. God’s justice demands sacrifice, and God’s mercy demands that our sin be paid for. By the miraculous incarnation and death of Jesus, both are met, and Christians can be enthusiastic to share this glorious news. Muslims need to see passionate belief in the life of a Christian before they will open their heart to Scripture’s message. While Christian educators do have a place teaching accurate reading and interpretation of a text to their students that would, if a Muslim applied these techniques to the Koran, show its self-contradictions, a Muslim’s greatest need is to see a passionate belief in a Christian’s daily walk with God. Christians can best display their passion when they have a personal relationship with a Muslim and have semi-private moments with him. A close, personal relationship built on trust means people with positions like athletic coaches or private music instructors have incredible platforms for reaching young Muslims who are more likely to leave their faith. Summary The Islamic denial of the incarnation dismantles its theology of Allah. Islam deceives its followers by promising the more like Muhammed a person becomes, the purer his heart will be, but the Christian knows Jesus must make his heart pure in order to be like Him. Furthermore, if Muhammed is the best intercessor mankind has, then mankind is hopeless because not even Muhammed could not fully plead for his uncle except to get him to the lowest form of hell where he would wear sandals that caused his brains to boil. Muhammed did not incarnate to become a good intercessor, and Allah, unlike the true God, is distant and unknowable. Jesus, God in human flesh, paid the penalty all humans could not pay; He is the perfect intercessor who enables men to know God personally and have a relationship with Him. Christians must be passionate about the Gospel, build relationships for the sake of it, and boldly declare it to those who desperately need it. Muslims need to know that the without the incarnation, Allah’s justice and greatness are thrown to the wayside, but through the incarnation man may know and have a relationship with a great, just God.

Forensic evidence on Major criminal case Free Essay Example, 1250 words

Matt Zoellner, who was Hettrick’s ex-boyfriend, also testified during the trials hearings and investigations. However, for Matt Zoellner, it is agreeable that he did not qualify to testify against masters since he had also been previously suspected of the murder but ruled out. Furthermore, he was the last person to be seen with Hettrick before her body was discovered. According to how tough the case was, particularly due to lack of any shred of physical evidence linking Masters to the Murder; it is more than evident that the jury did not weigh the pieces of evidence presented heavily. This is because, throughout the investigations, Masters maintained his innocence even in the absence of an adult. To add on that, the two hairs and the anonymous fingerprints in Hettrick’s purse did not correspond Masters. Furthermore, some of the jurors had uncertainties about Masters guilt. The case also majorly concentrated on one suspect, Masters. Other suspects including Matthew Zoel lner and Dr. Richard Hammond were not investigated as such. For instance, Dr. Richard Hammond as a professional eye surgeon was highly connected to the murder. We will write a custom essay sample on Forensic evidence on Major criminal case or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now One, because he had the surgical skills for doing the mutilations on Hettrick body and two, he had previously been arrested and summoned for filming female genitals in toilets. Additionally, Hammonds bedroom window directly faced the scene where the dead body was found. The lack of further investigations or follow-ups by the investigators and the jury merely depicted that the forensic evidence were not heavily weighed. The author of the â€Å"Peggy Hettrick murder case† does have original direct source knowledge of the evidence because the key points and aspects in the article explains the various strengths and weaknesses of the all the evidence found, investigated, and used for final conviction. The author also effectively analyzes the situation by maintaining a balance in explaining some of the facts that were overlooked and those that directly connect to Masters, the primary suspect, to the murder. Moreover, the impartial analysis of the t estimonials, suspects, and how the jury reached their final verdict also depicts the author as unbiased and one who is trustworthy (Lichtenwald, 2009, p. 53). One of the most important aspects to note is that, as much as the forensic science applications for the Peggy Hettrick murder case were appropriate, the evidences were overlooked because Masters drawings and art could typically represent what he saw at the murder scene coupled with some personal problems he might have been battling with.

Best/Worst Teacher Free Essays

Dear Mrs. Jane: My name is Jessica Smith, I was a 5th grade student of yours in during the 1996/1997 school year. At that time you may have known me as Jessica Cuevas. We will write a custom essay sample on Best/Worst Teacher or any similar topic only for you Order Now I am now in college pursuing a career in teaching. Recently I have been asked to write a letter to my favorite teacher and you were the first to pop in mind. Till this day I can think back and remember sitting in your class the first day of school, your desk and chalkboard outlined   with your collection of trolls! I knew right then that you were going to be a fun teacher. I remember being confused because there was no wall separating us from the the other classroom (Mrs. Sue’s 5th grade class), yet excited to hear what it was all about. Before attending your class I wasn’t very engaged in learning or going to school, I didn’t have many friends, I had just moved to town the year before. As soon as that day ended I went home eager to return to school the next day, and this feeling never changed for the whole year. You were always smiling, and very energetic when you interacted with our class. When you would explain our assignments you would get us excited and make it into a competition with our neighboring class. The marbles in the Jar, oh.. how i loved this on going game. The winning class had an option to pick from many random prizes. My favorite was the half day reading parties. We would bring our pillows and blankets from home and for the first half of the day we would read, and the second half we could play board games, listen to music, or watch movies. I was always motivated to do my best and to try my hardest,   in order to win the marbles. You had many ways of keeping me excited,motivated and interested in going to school. You opened my eyes to a fun,creative learning environment. You made feel like a friend and not just some student. I hope to someday be able to inspire students as you have inspired me. Thank you for making a wonderful impact so early in my life. I will carry those values throughout my teaching career. Sincerely, Jessica Smith Worst Teacher Letter Dear Mr. John: Teaching is not for everyone. I can understand how teaching high school students can be annoying and frustrating at times. We have multiple mood swings, and are trying to figure out how to fit in, however i don’t feel that we should be ignored or treated like robots with no feeling. School should be a place we feel comfortable to go to on a daily bases, teachers should always be someone we can talk to and ask questions . From the very first day of class you came across as very strict and rude. You gave us one direction that we were to follow each and every day for the rest of the school year. That was to always bring our book to class, outline the chapter, answer the questions to the chapter, and do the written essay at the end of the chapter, everything should be completed and placed on your desk as we walked out. We were not to talk, get out of our seats or ask questions. No exceptions! Zero tolerance you made sure to get that point across. One day I forgot my book at home, I felt intimidated to go to class not knowing how you would react, other teachers would have just let me share with another classmate but not you. You made me stand in front of the classroom the whole period holding the eraser against the chalkboard. It was pretty humiliating, on the bright side of things I never forgot my book again. Every day was the same thing, just a different chapter. You wouldn’t even greet us when we walked thru the door, we would just sit and get started. You sat at your desk reading books,newspaper, and magazines while never acknowledging us. How could you call yourself a teacher I always wondered? I strongly wish you have changed your ways, and rediscover the passion for teaching I hope you once had. Sincerely, Jessica Smith Why the Profession? At age eleven my family began to do foster care. We always had two or four kids ranging from newborns to teenagers. All the children came from broken house holds, many exposed to drugs, abuse and neglect. They all seemed to share the same qualities low self esteem, trouble trusting, adjusting ,adapting, and staying focused in school. They needed someone to love and care for them. All these frustrations and unhappiness caused many of them to have behavioral problems. My mother opened her heart to help them with all these issues, having the patience to teach them values and principles,bonding and investing genuine love and care for these children. As I grew older I began to notice the impact we as a family where making in these kids lives. I contributed in every way I could to try to help. At this point in life I knew I wanted to work with children. I have always been the creative type, I love all forms of art. I attended the Fashion institute of Design and Merchandise, and while I was there I realized that all my best projects and assignments were aimed   towards children. Any time I could pick my target audience it would be children. Children is what I know, they influence and inspire me. I   realized   that children are my passion. This is why I chose this profession. I see myself teaching kindergarten or first grade. I want to be the first to plant the seed. I want kids to enjoy learning by allowing them to explore in creative ways. Teaching them to share, and the basic fundamentals they will need for the future. Children this age group are the funnest to me, they have so many questions, they are craving to learn,seeking a new adventure every day. I want   to create an environment where they feel comfortable and inspired to learn. I also like the feeling of being needed, it gives me great satisfaction to be able to make a difference by simply being someone they can talk to, share their feelings and stories with, someone they can trust. You never know what kind of issues children have at home,for some kids school is a way to escape. I love to see children smile, laugh,clap and get excited when they accomplish a new task. That alone brings me so much joy and keeps me motivated to be the best teacher I can be. How to cite Best/Worst Teacher, Essay examples

Key Perspectives of Psychology free essay sample

Psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion and behaviour through scientific investigation. It studies both humans and animals. It relates to who we are as human beings, our capacity to think, reason and understand how life really works, it even throws light on the stresses we face. As infants we are unable to survive without others, we learn to adapt socially from the moment we are born. As a result of this social interaction we develop a sense of self. We learn to communicate, verbally and non verbally, and develop shared beliefs to create a sense of society and e rely on mutual understanding to co exist. There are 3 key perspectives, Behaviourism, Psychodynamics and Humanism. Each has its own assumptions and explanations and each investigates/researches using different techniques eg Surveys, Questionnaires, Lab Experiments and Counselling. Behaviourism Behaviourists focus on understanding how and why behaviour happens. Either a theory seeks confirmation through experimentation or a general law is derived by a variety of data. It uses scientific experiments that are observable and measurable, no speculation about mental processes is made. Main concepts: Classical conditioning Learning comes from association and experience. Reflexes and instincts can be conditioned to respond to neutral stimuli eg sound, sight, smell. Operant conditioning From reactions (consequences) to experiences, humans and animals learn to avoid or embrace those experiences. The responses are voluntary not reflex. Operants can be Reinforcers, positive and negative and Punishers. Social learning theory Learning is developed by observing peoples behaviours and attitudes and how they are received by others. It attempts to understand the exchange and interaction between behavioural and environmental effects and tries to explain moral evelopment. Pavlovs dogs (Mcleod, S. A. 2007) (Source http://science. howstuffworks. com/environmental/life/zoology/mammals/dog- trainingl . ntm) Pavlov used classical conditioning to create a conditioned retlex response (salivation in expectation of food) from a neutral stimulus (bell). The bell was associated with the food by introducing them together. He found that a higher order of conditioning was possible, and a second neutral stimulus could be associated with the first conditioned stimulus Eg A buzzer which buzzs at the same time as the bell. Stimulus discrimination occurred with sounds similar to the bell. Extinction may happen and dogs may lose the association with the bell after a time without food being introduced, and spontaneous recovery can develop later. Humans can be classically conditioned to a higher degree and therefore it can be used to desensitise and treat phobias conditioning them by associating them with posititve stimuli. Advertisers use conditioning to sell products. Unethically, Nestle, whose baby milk ads associated better health and well being of babies with bottle milk, conditioned 3rd world mothers to use their costly products instead of healthier and free breast-milk. Skinners (Mcleod, S. A. 2007) (Source http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/operant_conditioning_chamber) Skinner discovered operant conditioning using rats in a box. He used a positive stimulus (food) to encourage the rats to push a lever to get more food by positive reinforcement which strengthened their behaviour. The rat had learned that its behaviour had consequences. Negative reinforcement meant that they learned to push the lever to stop an electric current, this reward also strengthened its behaviour. Punishment, either giving an electric shock or removing food, weakened behaviour and rats stopped pushing the lever. Operant conditioning is often used to modify the behaviour of children at home or in schools using rewards eg if the child behaves well they receive sweets; or punishment eg if the child misbehaves they are told to go to their room. Students also learn new skills at college using suitable positive and negative reinforcement eg distinction grades (positive) or less homework (negative) for work well done. Businesses need sales to maintain growth, however a stimulus of high commissions on sales may positively reinforce the behaviour of selling unsuitable or overpriced products. Both case studies used good scientific methods, with observable behaviour and objective measurements giving reliable results. Additionally, the experiments can be repeated for experimental validity. The theory is easily applied to use in therapy in humans. However, animals used human complexities (like freewill, memory, of genes and hormones)were not taken into account. The lab conditions were unnatural compared with a real life environment and lacked ecological validity. Indeed, Pavlov needed to operate on the dogs to insert tubes into the salivary glands. Both case studies raise issues with ethics: cages/boxes hich restrict movement, causing pain with electric currents. Animal experimentation is considered unethical now. Psychodynamic perspective Psychodynamics encompasses the work of Freud and his followers eg Carl Jung, Erikson. It studies the relationship between conscious and unconscious motivations and the dynamics ot personality. It assumes that we are unaware ot most ot what controls our behaviour (unconscious mind) but that all behaviour has a cause/reason (deterministic). Freud (1865-1939) posed that different parts of the unconscious mind are in constant struggle, that our defence mechanisms (eg repression, regression, enial, projection) allow us to distort/deny reality, and that we all have sexual energy (libido). Freuds work revolved around the importance of cognitive behaviour in the first few years of life and its influence on normal or abnormal development of personality. He conceived mind as composed of 3 major systems, the d, the ego and the superego: which develop as we grew over 5 psychosexual stages. The ld innate and fully unconscious. Driven by the pleasure principal, striving for instant gratification or avoidance of pain, it takes no account others desires or societys customs. The Ego develops in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Awareness of ourselves and improper desires develop. Ego reasons with the id to ensure impulses are controlled. The Superego functions mainly in the unconscious. Consisting of the ego-ideal, telling us the rules of good behaviour, what we should be or do, and the conscience, telling us what is bad according to society, and what not to do or be. The 5 psychosexual stages: Oral, Anal , Phallic ,Latency, Genital. development-theory#) (Source: http://knol. google. com/k/human- Adult sexuality does not develop in everyone. Freud believed that to develop a healthy personality, the id, the ego, and the superego must be balanced, and all emotional issues must be resolved at each stage. Psychopathology results if an individual does not pass through the stages and becomes fixated. For example, a person fixated at the oral stage could, among other things, exhibit symptoms of obsessive eating or smoking in adult life, anal fixation, which may be caused by too much punishment during toilet training, has two possible outcomes: the anal retentive or anal expulsive personality. Little Hans (Mcleod, S. A. 2008) Freud suggested that the cause of his phobia was that his early experiences with his father developed into emotional conflicts, and these conflicts were unresolved (stuck in the phallic stage) and showing signs of displacement redirecting emotions to a substitute target (the horse was a symbol for his father). Freud concluded that the boy focused his libido (sexual energy) on his mother and was afraid that his father would castrate him for desiring her Oedipus complex. This case study was particularly useful in revealing and treating the origins of abnormal behaviour. It provided a very in-depth picture producing lots of qualitative ata. In fact Freud argued that it was the special relationship between Hans and his father that allowed the discussions with the boy to be so detailed and so intimate. This aided in the understanding and the helping and treatment of Little Hans. Rat-Man dames Strachey Freud diagnosed Ernst as having an obsessional neurosis and he traced it back to childhood and discovered he had unresolved issues from the Genital stage. When Ernst was young he had taken part in sexual foreplay with his nanny, according to Freud this resulted in associating of sexual pleasure with fear of punishment. It was a face to face analysis and Freud was able to observe any anxieties, there was dialogue where he could immediately probe more deeply at the appropriate times. However, it can be intimidating and difficult discussing embarrassing or frightening issues, and may lead to fabrications or omissions. Generally, Psychodynamic approach is unscientific. Psychodynamic concepts are highly subjective and cannot be verified. It is impossible to see inside the mind so the theories cannot be proved wrong. These case studies are based on studying one person in detail and even when analysis is done on more than one, his patients have very narrow age and society range, it is difficult to make generalisations about a wider population. It is also too deterministic and doesnt give enough credence to free will. Humanism This approach studies the whole person, not only through the eyes of the observer but also through the person doing the behaviour. It believes that behaviour is connected to inner feeling and self. It is the third force of psychology developed by Maslow (19430 and Rogers (1946 ) (Mcleod, S. A. (2007). Humanism focuses more on the personality and human potential and depicts an optimistic view of life; only positives (eg happiness, love) hould be considered. It assumes that all humans are born with healthy functional minds (opposite to Freuds dysfunctional beliefs) and questions what people think is important, or what motivates them. It emphasises that we have freewill to choose our destiny and that we are all individuals. The world is perceived in a unique phenomenological way. Our growth, achievement of potential, and resilience to survive drives us forward. Humanists view the objective, scientific method and study of animals as inappropriate since it regards humans as too complex to be studied this way, no two perceive the world the same way. It believes psychology should study the individual case rather than the average of a group. Maslow He created what is known as the hierarchy of needs pyramid (Source nttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Maslows_nierarcny_ot_needs) Each stage snows the needs and wants a person should have. Maslow argued you must go through each one in turn to reach the top and therefore self-actualise, and have a healthy personality. He categorised them into 2 areas: 1. Basic needs physiological safety love/belonging 2. Higher needs esteem self-actualisation. The basic needs contain what Maslow called deficiency needs. When these deficiency needs are not met, the body will exhibit a physical indication eg anxiousness or hunger. Maslows theory suggests the basic needs must be satisfied before an individual can begin to reach their higher needs. Higher needs (Metamotivation) describes the motivation that people have after they have gratified their basic needs so we strive to reach our full potential. He believed if we met all of these needs we would be perfectly content and happy. Carl Rogers Rogers agreed with most of what Maslow believed, but added that in order to grow and achieve our potential, our environment will influence us. To self-actualise, we eek for our environment to provide the right experiences, and the acceptance and understanding of others. He developed the client-centered theory which places more emphasis on how individuals move toward positive growth when the proper conditions (experiences) are in place. Clients who are provided with the right conditions e acceptance and understanding from others, realise their actualising tendencies and explore what difficulties they may have, giving them a clearer picture of themselves and their potential, thus moving them toward self-actualization. The clients were able to act in ways appropriate to their true self (congruence). This in turn leads to self-confidence, ability to make better choices and even more understanding of self. One of the methods is Q-Sort assessment: (Source http:// allpsych. com/personalitysynopsis/humanistic_research. html) Using Q-Sort, a therapist can tell how a person is progressing throughout the treatment, it compares where a person is relative to where he wants to be. A healthy person is one whos ideal of self and true self are similar There are applications of Q-Sort methods : Insurance companies, supermarkets often ask you to fill out a questionaire to rank a eries of statements, how much would you would like to buy X, what was your experience of Y eg your treatment by the customer service department. A holiday company who want to find out the places you like to go and why. An incentive can be offered to get you to spend the time filling out the questionnaire. Humanist methods (qualitative research) can be used by political parties to find out what policies a voter wants. It is also used for motivational courses in companies. However, these methods only reflect an individualistic, selfish outlook and do not take in to account the views of others or social motivations. Moreover, humanistic optimistic approach can not explain the horrors people intlict on each other. Its rejection ot scientific methodology brings significant criticism. It was developed specifically within western cultures and therefore the findings cannot be extrapolated to other cultures. Do basic needs have to be satisfied before higher needs? No, there many examples of people putting their higher needs first eg in concentration camps people still helped others despite their own need for food not being satisfied, homeless may prefer to spend benefits on alcohol or gambling. We operate on different levels at the same ime and not all that motivates us is conscious. Therefore, in conclusion, no one perspective explains all the complexities of the human psyche. They contradict, over lap, and even corroborate one another. They criticise each others approaches eg Behaviourists on Humanists lack of scientific methods. In present day Psychology, a combination of all three is needed to achieve the most conclusive results.